Meteorites from Mars help scientists understand the red planet’s interior

A Martian meteorite in cross-polarized light. This meteorite is dominated by the mineral olivine. Each grain is about half a millimeter across. James Day

James Day, University of California, San Diego

Of the more than 74,000 known meteorites – rocks that fall to Earth from asteroids or planets colliding together – only 385 or so stones came from the planet Mars.

It’s not that hard for scientists to work out that these meteorites come from Mars. Various landers and rovers have been exploring Mars’ surface for decades. Some of the early missions – the Viking landers – had the equipment to measure the composition of the planet’s atmosphere. Scientists have shown that you can see this unique Martian atmospheric composition reflected in some of these meteorites.

Mars also has unique oxygen. Everything on Earth, including humans and the air we breathe, is made up of a specific composition of the three isotopes of the element oxygen: oxygen-16, oxygen-17 and oxygen-18. But Mars has an entirely different composition – it’s like a geochemical fingerprint for being Martian.

The Martian meteorites found on Earth give geologists like me hints about the makeup of the red planet and its history of volcanic activity. They allow us to study Mars without sending a spacecraft 140 million miles away.

A planet of paradoxes

These Martian meteorites formed from once red-hot magma within Mars. Once these volcanic rocks cooled and crystallized, radioactive elements within them started to decay, acting as a radiometric clock that enables scientists to tell when they formed.

From these radiometric ages, we know that some Martian meteorites are as little as 175 million years old, which is – geologically speaking – quite young. Conversely, some of the Martian meteorites are older, and formed close to the time Mars itself formed.

These Martian meteorites tell a story of a planet that has been volcanically active throughout its entire history. In fact, there’s potential for Martian volcanoes to erupt even today, though scientists have never seen such an eruption.

The rocks themselves also preserve chemical information that indicates some of the major events on Mars happened early in its history. Mars formed quite rapidly, 4.5 billion years ago, from gas and dust that made up the early solar system. Then, very soon after formation, its interior separated out into a metallic core and a solid rocky mantle and crust.

Since then, very little seems to have disturbed Mars’ interior – unlike Earth, where plate tectonics has acted to stir and homogenize its deep interior. To use a food analogy, the Earth’s interior is like a smoothie and Mars’ is like a chunky fruit salad.

Martian meteorite samples are prepared for analysis in a clean lab. James Day

Martian volcano remnants

Understanding how Mars underwent such an early and violent adolescence, yet still may remain volcanically active today, is an area of great interest to me. I would like to know what the inside of Mars looks like, and how its interior makeup might explain features, like volcanoes, on the red planet’s surface.

When geologists set out to answer questions about volcanism on Earth, we typically examine lava samples that erupted at different places or times from the same volcano. These samples allow us to disentangle local processes specific to each volcano from planetary processes that take place at a larger scale.

It turns out we can do the same thing for Mars. The rather exotically named nakhlite and chassignite meteorites are a group of rocks from Mars that erupted from the same volcanic system some 1.3 billion years ago.

Nakhlites are basaltic rocks, similar to lavas you would find in Iceland or Hawaii, with beautiful large crystals of a mineral known as clinopyroxene. Chassignites are rocks made almost entirely of the green mineral olivine – you might know the gem-quality variety of this mineral, peridot.

Along with the much more common shergottites, which are also basaltic rocks, and a few other more exotic Martian meteorite types, these categories of meteorite constitute all the rocks researchers possess from the red planet.

When studied together, nakhlites and chassignites tell researchers several things about Mars. First, as the molten rock that formed them oozed to the surface and eventually cooled and crystallized, some surrounding older rocks melted into them.

That older rock doesn’t exist in our meteorite collection, so my team had to tease out its composition from the chemical information we obtained from nakhlites. From this information, we learned that the older rock was basaltic in composition and chemically distinct from other Martian meteorites. We found that it had been chemically weathered by exposure to water and brine.

This older rock is quite different from the Martian crust samples in our meteorite collection today. In fact, it is much more like what we would expect the Martian crust to look like, based on data gathered by rover missions and satellites orbiting Mars.

We know that the magmas that made nakhlites and chassignites come from a distinct portion of Mars’ mantle. The mantle is the rocky portion between Mars’ crust and metallic core. These nakhlites and chassignites come from the solid rigid shell at the top of Mars’ mantle, known as the mantle lithosphere, and this source makes them distinct from the more common shergottites.

Shergottites come from at least two sources within Mars. They may come from parts of the mantle just beneath the lithosphere, or even the deep mantle, which is closer to the planet’s metallic core.

The interior structure of Mars, with the sources of meteorites indicated. James Day

Understanding how volcanoes on Mars work can inform future research questions to be addressed by missions to the planet. It can also help scientists understand whether the planet has ever been habitable for life, or if it could be in the future.

Hints at habitability

Earth’s active geological processes and volcanoes are part of what makes our planet habitable. The gases emanating from volcanoes are a major part of our atmosphere. So if Mars has similar geological processes, that could be good news for the potential habitability of the red planet.

Mars is much smaller than Earth, however, and studies suggest that it’s been losing the chemical elements essential for a sustainable atmosphere since it formed. It likely won’t look anything like Earth in the future.

Our next steps for understanding Mars lie in learning how the basaltic shergottite meteorites formed. These are a diverse and richly complex set of rocks, ranging in age from 175 million years to 2.4 billion years or so.

Studying these meteorites in greater detail will help to prepare the next generation of scientists to analyze rocks collected using the Perseverance Rover for the forthcoming NASA Mars Sample Return mission.

James Day, Professor of Geosciences, University of California, San Diego

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. 

Shake Up Family Meals with a Versatile Superfood: 5 benefits of cooking with ghee

It’s easy to fall into a dinnertime rut, cooking the same meals with the same ingredients time and again. When your family is in search of a delicious way to shake things up in the kitchen, consider new ways to cook favorite dishes without completely rethinking the menu.

Replacing tired ingredients is an easy solution when classic recipes become bland and boring, which is a perfect reason to try cooking with 4th & Heart Ghee. As a 1:1 substitute for butter or oil, its spreadable texture makes it easy to use in baked goods, grilled dishes and beyond.

This superfood can do all the things butter can do – like make toast taste awesome and trick your kids into eating broccoli – but with additional benefits. For example, it maintains its molecular integrity at high temperatures, can be digested by lactose intolerant people, supports weight loss, improves digestion and reduces inflammation.

Consider these benefits of choosing 4th & Heart Ghee instead of butter:

• Grass-fed and pasture-raised: It’s packed with naturally occurring fatty acids and CLA, which can improve gut health and biochemistry.
• Spreadable and shelf-stable: Ghee is shelf-stable for up to 12 months and is best kept in the pantry. This means you never have to scramble to bring butter to room temperature quickly when baking or risk mangling your toast with cold butter.
• High smoke point: When oil smokes, it becomes a trans fatty acid. With a smoke point of 485 F, ghee lets you cook away without worrying about high temperatures.
• Natural source of butyric acid: Butyric acid naturally occurs in your gut and in ghee, helping your body absorb nutrients from the foods you eat.
• Buttery taste: Ghee made in the traditional style provides a delicious, light and buttery taste, perfect for this Sweet Potato Bowl with Cilantro, Turmeric Ghee and Lime. It’s ideal for a light lunch or dinner as it’s bursting with vibrant flavors and wholesome ingredients.

To find more benefits of cooking with ghee, along with recipe inspiration, visit fourthandheart.com.

Sweet Potato Bowl with Cilantro, Turmeric Ghee and Lime

• 2 large sweet potatoes, peeled and cubed
• 2 tablespoons 4th & Heart Turmeric Ghee, divided
• 1 teaspoon cumin powder
• 1 teaspoon smoked paprika
• salt, to taste
• pepper, to taste
• 1 cup quinoa
• 1 can black beans, drained and rinsed
• 1/4 cup red onion, finely diced
• 1/4 cup fresh cilantro, chopped, plus additional for garnish, divided
• 1 lime, juice only
• 1/4 cup crumbled feta or goat cheese (optional)

1. Preheat oven to 400 F.
2. In large bowl, toss cubed sweet potatoes with 1 tablespoon turmeric ghee, cumin powder and smoked paprika; add salt and pepper, to taste. Spread sweet potatoes evenly on baking sheet and roast 25-30 minutes, or until tender and slightly crispy on edges, turning halfway through.
3. Cook quinoa according to package instructions. Once cooked, fluff with fork and set aside.
4. In medium bowl, mix cooked quinoa with black beans, red onion and 1/4 cup chopped cilantro.
5. Drizzle half the lime juice over quinoa mixture and stir to combine. Add salt and pepper, to taste.
6. In large serving bowl, top quinoa mixture with roasted sweet potatoes. Drizzle remaining turmeric ghee over bowl. Squeeze remaining lime juice over top. Garnish with additional chopped cilantro and crumbled feta or goat cheese, if desired.

SOURCE:
4th & Heart Ghee

Unique, Hands-Free Ways to Soothe Your Baby

(Family Features) Most parents know – or soon will – crying is completely normal for babies. Even once you’ve determined a cause for the cries, finding foolproof ways to soothe baby can be difficult.

While traditional methods of soothing like bassinets and swings are often effective, they typically require parents to always be close by to keep baby calm. Bassinets and swings with innovative, soothing technology can help provide the safest place outside your arms to ensure baby is comforted and secure, allowing busy parents to have peace of mind while managing everyday tasks.

To bring baby from cries to comfort, Graco has introduced the future of innovative soothing with its Soothing Bassinet and Soothing Swing. Using SmartSense technology, they respond to cries with thousands of soothing combinations to help create more peaceful, happy moments for you and your baby.

Find more solutions to help calm and soothe your little ones by exploring the collection at GracoBaby.com.

Soothe Baby Back to Sleep
Bassinets are recommended for newborns until they can roll over or push up (typically around 5 months old). Creating a fully immersive sleep environment, the Graco SmartSense Soothing Bassinet hears baby’s cries and responds by gradually adjusting thousands of soothing combinations to help lull baby back to sleep, including gentle motions, soft vibration, multiple speeds, white noise and calming music. Parents can also directly control the settings or stream songs and sounds via Bluetooth wireless technology. Its sleek aesthetic and woodgrain finish fit seamlessly into home decor while breathable, mesh sides and a firm, flat sleeping surface help create a safe sleep space for baby. Plus, the bassinet offers swaddle compatibility, allowing babies to sleep soundly by adapting to their needs whether swaddled or not.

Rock Your Baby to Comfort
Mimicking the way parents naturally soothe their babies, the Graco SmartSense Soothing Swing offers four unique motions – swing, rock, cradle and glide – as well as combinations of soft vibrations, speeds, white noise and calming sounds to help create more peaceful, happy moments. It boasts technology that hears your baby cry and responds in seconds with calming sound and motion. The swing also features a cozy body support made with organic cotton fabrics, three recline positions and a convertible harness with harness covers to keep your baby comfy and secure while swinging.

 

SOURCE:
Graco

Supreme Court makes prosecution of Trump on obstruction charge more difficult, with ruling to narrowly define law used against him and Jan. 6 rioters

The Supreme Court faced a decision in a case involving participants in the Jan. 6, 2021, U.S. Capitol riot. AP Photo/John Minchillo, File

Riley T. Keenan, University of Richmond

The indictments – and in some cases, the convictions – of hundreds of people charged with participating in the riot at the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021, will have to be reconsidered, and possibly dropped, because of a ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court on June 28, 2024. Among those charged using a broad interpretation of the obstruction law now narrowed by the high court: former President Donald Trump.

In its decision in Fischer v. United States, the Supreme Court held that a federal statute that prohibits obstructing an official proceeding may not apply to three defendants who were charged with participating in the U.S. Capitol riot. Although former President Donald Trump is not a defendant in the case, special counsel Jack Smith has charged him separately with violating the same statute.

As a law professor who teaches and writes in the fields of constitutional law and federal courts, I’ll explain what the court’s decision means for Jan. 6 defendants – and for Smith’s case against Trump.

Charges against Capitol rioters

According to their indictments, Joseph Fischer, Edward Lang and Garret Miller were present at the Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021. Prosecutors say that all three men entered the Capitol building and assaulted police officers during the riot. One of the men, Lang, brandished a bat and a stolen police shield, and another, Miller, later called for the assassination of U.S. Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez on social media.

Federal prosecutors charged the three men with various crimes, including assault on a federal officer, disorderly conduct on the Capitol grounds and obstructing a congressional proceeding. That last charge is the one at issue in the Supreme Court appeal.

Before trial, the defendants argued that the law the prosecutors had used to charge them with obstruction applied only to evidence tampering, not the violent disruption of a congressional proceeding. The district court agreed and dismissed the charge, but the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit reversed and sent the case back for trial.

The Supreme Court then agreed to hear the case, putting the trial on hold while it considered the dispute over the scope of the obstruction law.

Defining a catch-all term

In a 6-3 opinion by Chief Justice John Roberts, the Supreme Court agreed with the defendants and held that the statute prohibits only evidence tampering. It then sent the case back to the appeals court to decide whether the defendants violated the law under that narrower reading by trying to prevent Congress from receiving and certifying the states’ true electoral votes.

The court began with the text of the obstruction law. The law penalizes anyone who “alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object” or who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding.” The government argued that the defendants had “otherwise obstruct(ed)” proceedings in Congress to certify the results of the 2020 election.

But the court rejected that argument, holding that the phrase “otherwise obstructs” refers only to obstruction that – like altering, destroying, mutilating or concealing a record, document or object – impairs the availability or integrity of evidence for use in an official proceeding. The law’s catch-all for “otherwise obstructing” an official proceeding must be read in common with the list of actions that precedes it, the court explained. Otherwise, the list would be redundant.

The court also pointed to the law’s historical background. Congress, the court explained, enacted this specific obstruction law in 2002 in the wake of the Enron accounting fraud scandal. Its aim was to fill a gap in the nation’s existing obstruction laws, which at the time prohibited directing a third party to destroy incriminating evidence but not destroying the evidence oneself.

The government’s reading of the law, the court explained, would stretch it far beyond that purpose, prohibiting forms of obstruction that had nothing to do with evidence and that Congress never intended to criminalize.

What this means for Jan. 6 defendants – and for Trump

The Supreme Court, from left in front row: Sonia Sotomayor, Clarence Thomas, John Roberts, Samuel Alito and Elena Kagan; and from left in back row: Amy Coney Barrett, Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh and Ketanji Brown Jackson. Alex Wong/Getty Images

The Supreme Court’s decision does not end the case against the Fischer defendants, who will likely stand trial on their assault and disorderly conduct charges.

But it may lead to the dismissal of obstruction charges, or reversal of obstruction convictions, for other Jan. 6 defendants. According to an NPR database, federal prosecutors have charged at least 250 other defendants with obstruction of an official proceeding, and 128 have been convicted.

The ruling may also undermine special counsel Jack Smith’s case against former President Donald Trump, whom Smith has charged with obstruction under the same law. If that case survives a separate pending Supreme Court appeal, the former president will likely seek dismissal of that charge.

Trump may not succeed, however, as the obstruction charge against him is based in part on the allegation that he organized slates of electors to certify false election results to Congress. That may amount to impairing the integrity of the evidence used in the certification proceedings.

And the obstruction charge is also not the only count the former president faces. But the ruling may narrow the case and make it more difficult for the special counsel to present evidence to the jury concerning the violence that occurred on Jan. 6. Under this new ruling, that violence alone may not count as obstruction.

The Fischer case also shows how sometimes, especially in high-stakes cases, the justices can use methods of legal reasoning that they are quick to criticize in other contexts. In the opinion, members of the Supreme Court’s conservative majority cited the legislative history of the obstruction law – evidence that conservative jurists such as the late Justice Antonin Scalia often called unreliable.

The Supreme Court’s decision in the Fischer case may have a profound effect on the special counsel’s historic prosecution of former President Trump.

But even if it does not, it still sheds important light on the court’s inner workings and the federal government’s power to safeguard the integrity of its proceedings.

Riley T. Keenan, Assistant Professor of Law, University of Richmond

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. 

Give Your Grilling Game a Flavor Boost: 3 tips to make summer meals deliciously memorable

Make sure your grill game is on fire this summer. The right prepping, seasoning and grilling techniques can help you serve your favorite foods in the tastiest ways all summer.

Consider these helpful tips from the flavor experts at Watkins.

Seasoning with Staying Power
The first step for impressive flavor is proper preparation. For dry seasoning, blot meat or sliced vegetables (such as zucchini) with paper towels to dry. Then rub 1-2 teaspoons of vegetable oil over each piece to help your seasoning or dry rub stick.

For marinades, after mixing – but before adding the meat – reserve 2 tablespoons of marinade liquid to baste meat while on the grill. If you’re dicing meat (except for shrimp), do so before adding it to the marinade so each piece can soak in as much flavor as possible.

Finally, no grilling menu would be complete without burgers. Adding a seasoning tailor-made for this all-American classic, like Watkins Organic Hamburger Seasoning, brings an unforgettable boost of flavor. You’ll want about 1 tablespoon of seasoning for each pound of ground meat – just be sure to mix in thoroughly before you make your patties to distribute the flavor evenly.

Flavor for All Your Favorites
While most people think of meats for grilling season, there are so many ways to spice up all your favorite foods and beverages. For fajitas, you can use chili lime seasoning for the meat and put it on the rim of your lemonade or margaritas, too.

You can also switch it up and roast potatoes instead of fries to go with a well-seasoned burger. Try peppercorn Parmesan seasoning for a complementary flavor. If you’re looking for a finishing touch for steak, mushrooms make a perfect enhancement and you can use the same steak seasoning to prepare them.

A Showstopping Side
Grilled corn makes a fresh, juicy side for summer meals. For tender kernels and a milder char flavor, leave the husks on, soak the corn in water for 20-30 minutes and grill over medium-high heat for 15-20 minutes. For more char and caramelized flavor, remove the husks and grill over medium-high heat for 8-10 minutes, turning frequently.

After grilling, remove the husks (if needed) and lightly coat the corn in butter before seasoning. Corn can work with a range of flavor profiles – get creative with Watkins Organic Mesquite, Chili Lime or Peppercorn Parmesan seasoning blends to make your most memorable corn yet.

Whatever you add to your menu, enjoy finding new summer staples. For more flavors and grilling inspiration, visit watkins1868.com.

Southwest Pork Chops

• 2          tablespoons Watkins 1868 Organic Grilling Chili Lime Seasoning
• 2          teaspoons Watkins Organic Black Pepper
• 2          teaspoons cooking oil of choice
• 1/2       teaspoon Watkins Fine Himalayan Pink Salt
• 8          pork loin chops (about 2 1/2 pounds)
• hot sauce (optional)

1. Combine chili lime seasoning, black pepper, cooking oil and pink salt. Spread mixture evenly over pork chops. Cover and refrigerate at least 30 minutes.
2. Heat grill to medium heat. Grill pork chops 4-5 inches from heat source, turning frequently, until no longer pink when cut near bone. Serve with hot sauce, if desired.

Peppery Beef Kebabs

• 1          pound sirloin, cut into 1-inch cubes
• 2          tablespoons Watkins 1868 Organic Grilling Steak Seasoning or Watkins 1868 Organic Grilling Salt Free Steak Seasoning
• 1          teaspoon Watkins Organic Ground Black Pepper
• bell peppers, cut into chunks (optional)
• onions, cut into chunks (optional)
• mushrooms, cut into chunks (optional)
• cooked couscous or rice

1. Sprinkle sirloin with steak seasoning and black pepper. Thread beef onto skewers along with bell peppers, onions and mushrooms, as desired.
2. Heat grill to medium-high heat. Grill, turning occasionally, until meat is cooked to desired doneness, 5-7 minutes. Serve atop cooked couscous or rice.

SOURCE:
Watkins Spices